Fish Culture Challenges and Problems in Jordan: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Jordan’s fish culture sector, primarily centered on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio), faces critical challenges including high feed costs driven by imported fish meal (FM) dependency, water quality degradation due to arid climatic conditions, disease prevalence linked to intensive farming, and economic inefficiencies in smallholder systems. This review synthesizes 50 peer-reviewed studies, theses, and institutional reports (2002–2024) to analyze these challenges. Key findings highlight plant-based and agricultural by-product alternatives (e.g., Moringa leaf meal, tomato pomace, earthworm meal) as potential feed cost reducers, though their lower apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) for protein and energy necessitate processing (e.g., extrusion, phytase supplementation) to match FM efficacy. Water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), ammonia (NH3-N), and pH are frequently suboptimal, correlating with reduced growth and increased disease risk. Antibiotic usage, while declining, remains a concern, with natural alternatives like Mentha piperita powder and Nelumbo-derived zinc oxide nanoparticles showing promise but requiring standardized testing. Irrigation pond systems demonstrate economic viability but are constrained by limited water management infrastructure. Recommendations emphasize integrated strategies for feed innovation, climate-smart water management, antibiotic reduction, and policy support to enhance sector resilience